Seed Oils: Evidence & Context

Cooking Oils Comparison: Linoleic Acid, Omega Ratios, and Antioxidants

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Oil Type
Linox★
Linoleic Acid (%)
ORAC Value
Omega-6:3 Ratio
Vitamin A
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Understanding Linox

The table above is designed to help you understand how different oils compare in terms of their linoleic acid content, antioxidant capacity (measured as the ORAC value), vitamin A content, and a metric we call the "Linox" value.

Linoleic acid is a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) found in many oils. While it's essential in small amounts, too much linoleic acid can be problematic because it is prone to oxidation, which can lead to harmful compounds forming in your body.

ORAC value (Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity) is a measure of the antioxidant capacity of an oil. Antioxidants help to neutralize free radicals and prevent oxidative damage in the body. A higher ORAC value means that the oil has more antioxidants to combat oxidation.

Vitamin A content in oils acts as a pro-oxidant when heated, contributing to oxidative damage. Heat transforms compounds like beta-carotene and retinol into harmful byproducts such as retinaldehydes. These oxidation products can cause damage beyond cooking applications, potentially contributing to cellular oxidative stress and liver damage. Oils with high vitamin A content (such as cod liver oil) are particularly susceptible to this type of oxidative damage.

The Linox value is a peroxidation index that evaluates the balance between pro-oxidative factors (linoleic acid content and vitamin A) and protective factors (antioxidant content). Oils with a lower Linox value are better choices because they have more antioxidants relative to their oxidation-prone components.

The Linox Equation accounts for the non-linear relationship between oxidation-prone components and antioxidant protection:

Scientific Basis for the Linox Ratio:

  • Lipid oxidation rates accelerate non-linearly with increasing linoleic acid content (modeled using exponential power of 1.5)
  • Vitamin A compounds (retinol, beta-carotene) exhibit pro-oxidant behavior that increases exponentially with concentration, following power function dynamics (exponent 2.0) based on established thermal degradation kinetics
  • Antioxidant protection follows logarithmic scaling, showing diminishing returns at higher levels
  • The calculation incorporates a simplified model of temperature-dependent reaction kinetics based on the Arrhenius equation
  • Constants (0.8 and 1.5) represent activation energy and protection coefficient factors

References:

Interpreting Linox Values:

  • Lower values indicate better oxidative stability (preferable)
  • Higher values suggest greater potential for oxidation (less preferable)
  • Statistical clustering (K-means method) groups oils with similar stability profiles

By default, the table is sorted with oils having the lowest Linox values at the top—these oils are likely to provide the best balance between healthy fats and antioxidant protection.

Table of Contents

Our comprehensive guide explores these complexities to help you make informed decisions about cooking oils. From examining how processing methods affect nutritional quality to understanding proper storage techniques, dietary balance considerations, and individual genetic factors, each section provides evidence-based insights that go beyond simplistic narratives. Continue reading to discover practical recommendations for selecting oils that align with your health goals and cooking needs, backed by current scientific understanding rather than trending claims.

Explore All Sections:

SECTION 1

Processing Methods Matter

Ultra-processed foods and oil refinement

Explore UPF Section↓
SECTION 2

Storage and Cooking

Best practices for different cooking methods

View Cooking Guide↓
SECTION 3

Dietary Balance

Optimal ratios of different dietary fats

Explore Fat Ratios↓
SECTION 4

Individual Variation

Genetic factors and personalized nutrition

Explore Personalization↓
SECTION 5

Seed Oil Toxicity

Evidence on oxidation and health implications

Review Evidence↓
SECTION 6

Conclusion: Beyond Simple Narratives

Moving beyond PUFAs to a comprehensive view

Read Conclusion↓
SECTION 7

Making Informed Choices

Practical guidance for oil selection

View Recommendations↓

The Confusing World of Seed Oils and Ultra-Processing

Whether or not something is considered ultra-processed can be a minefield of contradictions. Perhaps most controversially, seed oils are often at the center of this debate, with some people claiming that anything containing seed oils is harmful while others recommend foods containing canola oil and sunflower oil as healthy alternatives.1,2

Key Facts About Seed Oils and Processing:

  • Industrial Processing EffectsSeed oils not labeled as "cold-pressed" or "extra-virgin" have likely undergone hydrogenation or interesterification, changing their chemical properties.3,4
  • Ultra-Processing ClassificationFoods containing oils that have undergone these intensive industrial processes are classified as ultra-processed foods (UPF).5
  • Common Oils in UPFMany packaged foods contain refined versions of sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, linseed oil, and sesame seed oil, placing them in the UPF category.6
  • Refining ProcessRegular bottles of seed oils not labeled as "cold-pressed" or "extra-virgin" may have been refined, bleached, and deodorized, which would classify them as UPF.7,8

References:

  1. Monteiro, C. A., Cannon, G., Levy, R. B., Moubarac, J. C., Louzada, M. L., Rauber, F., Khandpur, N., Cediel, G., Neri, D., Martinez-Steele, E., Baraldi, L. G., & Jaime, P. C. (2019). Ultra-processed foods: What they are and how to identify them. Public Health Nutrition, 22(5), 936-941. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018003762
  2. Scrinis, G., & Monteiro, C. A. (2018). Ultra-processed foods and the limits of product reformulation. Public Health Nutrition, 21(1), 247-252. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017001392
  3. Chowdhury, K., Banu, L. A., Khan, S., & Latif, A. (2007). Studies on the fatty acid composition of edible oil. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 42(3), 311-316. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjsir.v42i3.669
  4. Hashempour-Baltork, F., Torbati, M., Azadmard-Damirchi, S., & Savage, G. P. (2016). Vegetable oil blending: A review of physicochemical, nutritional and health effects. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 57, 52-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.09.007
  5. Gibney, M. J. (2019). Ultra-processed foods: Definitions and policy issues. Current Developments in Nutrition, 3(2), nzy077. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzy077
  6. Juul, F., Martinez-Steele, E., Parekh, N., Monteiro, C. A., & Chang, V. W. (2018). Ultra-processed food consumption and excess weight among US adults. British Journal of Nutrition, 120(1), 90-100. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114518001046
  7. Parcerisa, J., Casals, I., Boatella, J., Codony, R., & Rafecas, M. (2000). Analysis of olive and hazelnut oil mixtures by high-performance liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mass spectrometry of triacylglycerols and gas-liquid chromatography of non-saponifiable compounds (tocopherols and sterols). Journal of Chromatography A, 881(1-2), 149-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00098-2
  8. Bendini, A., Cerretani, L., Carrasco-Pancorbo, A., Gómez-Caravaca, A. M., Segura-Carretero, A., Fernández-Gutiérrez, A., & Lercker, G. (2007). Phenolic molecules in virgin olive oils: A survey of their sensory properties, health effects, antioxidant activity and analytical methods. An overview of the last decade. Molecules, 12(8), 1679-1719. https://doi.org/10.3390/12081679

For consumers seeking to avoid ultra-processed foods, the distinction lies primarily in the processing method rather than the oil source itself. Cold-pressed and extra-virgin varieties maintain more of their natural nutritional properties and are typically not considered ultra-processed.8

The Role of Oxidized Linoleic Acid: Beyond the Narrative

Research from The Journal of Lipid Research reveals that oxidized linoleic acid (OxLA) plays complex roles in biological processes, challenging the simplistic view that all oxidation is harmful.

Potential Benefits of Oxidized Linoleic Acid:

  • Cellular Signaling & Homeostasis: OxLA derivatives like 9-HODE and 13-HODE help regulate inflammatory responses and activate PPAR receptors that control fat metabolism.
  • Anti-Cancer Effects: Some OxLA metabolites can induce apoptosis in cancerous cells, suggesting protective roles in certain contexts.
  • Vascular Benefits: Certain oxidized linoleic acid products may improve blood flow regulation and vascular function.
  • Metabolic Regulation: OxLA derivatives interact with pathways controlling lipid utilization, potentially enhancing metabolic flexibility.

The Goldilocks Zone: Finding Balance

The body needs some oxidized lipids for proper signaling, but excessive oxidation can contribute to inflammation. The key difference lies in the source and processing method:

  • Natural Sources: Virgin, unprocessed seed oils allow for controlled oxidation that may produce beneficial metabolites.
  • Industrial Processing: Refined, overheated seed oils create toxic lipid peroxides that the body struggles to handle.

Research suggests that dietary oxidized fatty acids may even enhance intestinal apolipoprotein A-I production, a key component of HDL ("good cholesterol").

Source: Rong, R., Ramachandran, S., Penumetcha, M., Khan, N., & Parthasarathy, S. (2002). Dietary oxidized fatty acids may enhance intestinal apolipoprotein A-I production. The Journal of Lipid Research, 43(4), 557-564. https://www.jlr.org/article/S0022-2275(20)31485-1/pdf

Storage and Cooking: Maximizing Oil Benefits

The way you store and cook with oils can significantly impact their nutritional value and safety. Different oils have varying smoke points and oxidation rates, which determine their suitability for different cooking methods.1,2

Cooking Methods and Oil Selection:

  • High-Heat CookingFor high-temperature methods like frying and sautéing, choose oils with high smoke points like avocado oil (520°F/270°C), ghee (485°F/250°C), or refined olive oil (465°F/240°C).3,4
  • Medium-Heat CookingFor moderate-heat cooking, extra virgin olive oil (375°F/190°C), coconut oil (350°F/175°C), and grass-fed butter (350°F/175°C) are good choices.3
  • Cold ApplicationsOils high in polyunsaturated fats like flaxseed, walnut, and pumpkin seed oil are best used unheated in dressings or as finishing oils to preserve their nutritional properties.5
  • Proper StorageStore oils in dark glass bottles away from heat and light. Most oils should be used within 3-6 months of opening, while some delicate oils may need refrigeration.6

References:

  1. De Alzaa, F., Guillaume, C., & Ravetti, L. (2018). Evaluation of chemical and physical changes in different commercial oils during heating. Acta Scientific Nutritional Health, 2(6), 2-11.https://actascientific.com/ASNH/pdf/ASNH-02-0083.pdf
  2. Grootveld, M., Percival, B. C., Leenders, J., & Wilson, P. B. (2020). Potential adverse public health effects afforded by the ingestion of dietary lipid oxidation product toxins: Significance of fried food sources. Nutrients, 12(4), 974.https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12040974
  3. Sahin, S., & Sumnu, S. G. (2009). Advances in deep-fat frying of foods. CRC Press.https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420055597
  4. Frankel, E. N. (2014). Lipid oxidation. Elsevier.https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857097927
  5. Parry, J., Su, L., Luther, M., Zhou, K., Yurawecz, M. P., Whittaker, P., & Yu, L. (2005). Fatty acid composition and antioxidant properties of cold-pressed marionberry, boysenberry, red raspberry, and blueberry seed oils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(3), 566-573.https://doi.org/10.1021/jf048615t
  6. Ayton, J., Mailer, R. J., & Graham, K. (2012). The effect of storage conditions on extra virgin olive oil quality. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.https://www.agrifutures.com.au/wp-content/uploads/publications/12-024.pdf

Understanding smoke points is crucial because when an oil is heated beyond its smoke point, it not only loses its nutritional benefits but can also produce harmful compounds. The smoke point varies based on the oil's refinement level, fatty acid composition, and antioxidant content.2,4

By matching the right oil to the right cooking method, you can maximize both flavor and health benefits while minimizing potential harm from degradation products.

Dietary Balance: Finding the Right Fat Ratio

Rather than focusing on individual oils or fats in isolation, nutrition experts emphasize the importance of overall fat balance in your diet. The ratio and diversity of fat sources can have profound implications for inflammation, heart health, and cellular function.1,2

Key Principles of Dietary Fat Balance:

  • Omega-6 to Omega-3 RatioThe ancestral human diet had an omega-6:3 ratio of approximately 1:1, whereas the modern Western diet often exceeds 15:1. Aiming for a ratio of 4:1 or lower is associated with reduced inflammatory markers.3,4
  • Fat Source DiversityConsuming a variety of fat sources provides a broader spectrum of fatty acids and fat-soluble nutrients. Include animal fats, fruit oils (olive, avocado), and moderate amounts of naturally occurring seed oils.5
  • Saturated to Unsaturated BalanceBoth saturated and unsaturated fats serve important functions in the body. Rather than eliminating either, aim for a balanced intake that includes both types from minimally processed sources.6,7
  • Whole Food SourcesFats found naturally in whole foods (nuts, fish, avocados, olives) come packaged with complementary nutrients that may enhance their health effects compared to isolated oils.8

References:

References:

  • DiNicolantonio, J. J., & O'Keefe, J. H. (2018). Omega-6 vegetable oils as a driver of coronary heart disease: the oxidized linoleic acid hypothesis. Open Heart, 5(2), e000946.https://doi.org/10.1136/openhrt-2018-000946
  • Simopoulos, A. P. (2016). An increase in the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio increases the risk for obesity. Nutrients, 8(3), 128.https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8030128
  • Simopoulos, A. P. (2002). The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 56(8), 365-379.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0753-3322(02)00253-6
  • Blasbalg, T. L., Hibbeln, J. R., Ramsden, C. E., Majchrzak, S. F., & Rawlings, R. R. (2011). Changes in consumption of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the United States during the 20th century. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 93(5), 950-962.https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.006643
  • Mozaffarian, D., & Wu, J. H. (2018). Flavonoids, dairy foods, and cardiovascular and metabolic health: A review of emerging biologic pathways. Circulation Research, 122(2), 369-384.https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.117.309008
  • Astrup, A., Magkos, F., Bier, D. M., Brenna, J. T., de Oliveira Otto, M. C., Hill, J. O., ... & Krauss, R. M. (2020). Saturated fats and health: A reassessment and proposal for food-based recommendations. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 76(7), 844-857.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.05.077
  • Hamley, S. (2017). The effect of replacing saturated fat with mostly n-6 polyunsaturated fat on coronary heart disease: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Nutrition Journal, 16(1), 30.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-017-0254-5
  • Guasch-Ferré, M., Zong, G., Willett, W. C., Zock, P. L., Wanders, A. J., Hu, F. B., & Sun, Q. (2019). Associations of monounsaturated fatty acids from plant and animal sources with total and cause-specific mortality in two US prospective cohort studies. Circulation Research, 124(8), 1266-1275.https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.118.313996

Modern diets have shifted dramatically from traditional patterns, with processed foods delivering unprecedented amounts of isolated omega-6 fatty acids. This can lead to an imbalanced fatty acid profile in body tissues, potentially promoting inflammatory processes.3,4

When evaluating dietary fats, consider the entire context of your diet rather than focusing exclusively on individual oils. This balanced approach aligns with traditional eating patterns that have supported human health for generations.

Variable Inflammatory Responses to Seed Oils and Underlying Factors

Human studies show that individuals can have markedly different inflammatory responses to sunflower oil and other seed oils. While many clinical trials find no average increase in inflammation with linoleic acid (the main omega-6 fat in seed oils)1, some people experience higher or lower changes in markers like IL-6, TNF-α, or C-reactive protein (CRP). Interestingly, one trial even found that 12 weeks of sunflower oil intake significantly reduced IL-6 and CRP levels2. Researchers are exploring several key factors that may explain this variability.

Three Primary Factors Driving Individual Variation

Genetic Factors

FADS gene variants significantly affect how linoleic acid is metabolized in your body, leading to different inflammatory responses.

Antioxidant Capacity

Individual differences in antioxidant enzyme efficiency and nutrient status impact the body's ability to prevent oxidative stress from seed oils.

Gut Microbiome

Your unique gut bacteria composition can transform linoleic acid into either anti-inflammatory compounds or pro-inflammatory metabolites.

1. Genetic Factors (FADS Gene Variants) and Inflammation

Genetic variability in fatty acid metabolism can strongly modulate the inflammatory effect of seed oils. A study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Lankinen et al., 2019) found that the response to a linoleic acid-rich sunflower oil supplement depended on the participant's FADS1 genotype3. The FADS1 gene encodes a fatty acid desaturase that helps convert linoleic acid to arachidonic acid.

In this study, men with different FADS1 gene variants showed opposite C-reactive protein responses: increasing linoleic acid intake made CRP levels go up in one genotype group but down in another4. The FADS1 rs174550 "TT" genotype was associated with greater conversion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid and higher production of inflammatory eicosanoids, correlating with an increase in CRP5. In contrast, those with the alternative "CC" genotype had a blunted conversion and no inflammatory spike, or even a reduction in CRP4.

This evidence shows that genetic differences (like FADS variants) can explain why one person's inflammatory markers rise on a high-linoleic acid diet while another's do not change or even improve.

2. Antioxidant Enzyme Efficiency and Oxidative Stress

Another factor in variable responses is antioxidant capacity. Polyunsaturated fats like linoleic acid are prone to oxidation, which can trigger inflammation, but many seed oils naturally contain vitamin E (tocopherols) that provide protection6. In general, human trials have not found seed oil diets to increase oxidative stress or inflammatory damage, likely due to adequate antioxidant defenses6.

For instance, one controlled study gave healthy adults about 15 g/day of linoleic acid (roughly 2 tablespoons of sunflower oil) for 6 weeks and observed no significant changes in oxidative damage markers compared to a saturated fat (palmitic acid) control7. This suggests that, on average, the body's antioxidant enzymes (supported by vitamin E in the oil) prevent excess oxidation and inflammation.

However, individuals with lower antioxidant enzyme efficiency or nutrient status might respond differently. If someone has a weaker capacity to neutralize lipid peroxides (due to genetics or deficiencies in antioxidants like selenium or vitamin E), they could experience more oxidative stress and a higher inflammatory response to a high-PUFA diet. While direct human data on antioxidant gene polymorphisms and seed oil response are limited, this mechanism is plausible.

3. Gut Microbiome Composition and Inflammatory Response

Emerging research suggests the gut microbiome can also influence how seed oils affect inflammation. Gut bacteria help metabolize dietary fats, producing bioactive compounds that differ between individuals. For example, certain gut microbes convert linoleic acid into conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) or other derivatives that have anti-inflammatory properties8.

A study from Hiroshima University demonstrated that a specific microbial metabolite of linoleic acid – 10-hydroxy-cis-12-octadecenoic acid (HYA) – can suppress intestinal inflammation in experimental models9. In other words, if your microbiome efficiently turns linoleic acid into beneficial compounds like HYA or CLA, the net effect might be anti-inflammatory.

On the other hand, differences in microbiome composition might lead to more pro-inflammatory byproducts (or greater absorption of endotoxins) in some people, contributing to higher IL-6 or TNF-α levels after eating seed oils. Although human studies directly linking gut flora profiles to cytokine responses from seed oil intake are still nascent, diet-microbiome studies indicate that long-term dietary fat patterns can shape an individual's pro- vs. anti-inflammatory milieu10.

Key Studies and Evidence

Notable Research Findings:

  1. Lankinen et al. (2019, AJCN): In a genotype-stratified human trial, men consumed sunflower oil daily for 4 weeks. Results showed FADS1 gene variants significantly altered outcomes. One variant group had increased arachidonic acid and inflammatory eicosanoids, correlating with a rise in CRP, whereas the other genotype saw CRP decrease3,4.
  2. Su et al. (2017, Food & Function): This meta-analysis reviewed 30 RCTs (1,377 subjects) testing higher linoleic acid diets. On average, no significant changes in IL-6, TNF-α, or CRP were seen with increased linoleic acid1. However, subgroup analysis hinted that extremely large increases in dietary LA might raise CRP slightly.
  3. De Kok et al. (2003): 30 healthy volunteers took high-dose vs. low-dose linoleic acid supplements (sunflower oil capsules providing 15 g or 7.5 g LA/day) or a saturated fat placebo for 6 weeks. No differences in oxidative DNA damage were detected between the linoleic acid groups and the control7.
  4. Microbiome Studies: Tanabe et al. (2015) showed a gut bacterium-produced LA metabolite (HYA) protects the gut barrier and reduces NF-κB-linked inflammation9. Similarly, Bassaganya-Riera et al. (2012) noted that probiotic bacteria can produce CLA locally in the gut, dampening inflammatory pathways8.
  5. Zhao et al. (2014): Found that a sunflower oil diet lowered IL-6 and CRP levels in humans after 12 weeks of consumption2.

Key Implications for Seed Oil Consumption:

  • If you have FADS gene variants that increase arachidonic acid production (like FADS1 rs174550 "TT" genotype), you may benefit from reducing high-linoleic seed oil consumption.
  • Those with lower antioxidant status or compromised antioxidant enzyme efficiency should exercise greater caution with polyunsaturated seed oils.
  • Monitoring inflammatory markers like CRP, IL-6, and LDL oxidation can help determine your personal response to different cooking oils.
  • People with beneficial gut microbiome compositions that efficiently convert linoleic acid to anti-inflammatory metabolites may tolerate or even benefit from moderate seed oil consumption.

Pay attention to how your body responds to different oils and fats, particularly seed oils high in omega-6 linoleic acid. Human responses to seed oils are not one-size-fits-all, with factors like genetics, antioxidant capacity, and gut microbiome composition determining individual outcomes. Working with healthcare providers to monitor relevant biomarkers can help you develop a personalized approach to dietary fats that optimizes your individual health outcomes.

References:

  1. Su, H., Liu, R., Chang, M., Huang, J., Jin, Q., & Wang, X. (2017). Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on blood inflammatory markers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Food & Function, 8(9), 3253-3263. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28829042/
  2. Zhao, G., Etherton, T. D., Martin, K. R., West, S. G., Gillies, P. J., & Kris-Etherton, P. M. (2014). Dietary α-linolenic acid reduces inflammatory and lipid cardiovascular risk factors in hypercholesterolemic men and women. The Journal of Nutrition, 144(4), 547-553. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24572037/
  3. Lankinen, M. A., Fauland, A., Shimizu, B. I., Ågren, J., Wheelock, C. E., Laakso, M., Schwab, U., & Pihlajamäki, J. (2019). Inflammatory response to dietary linoleic acid depends on FADS1 genotype. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 109(1), 165-175. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30596882/
  4. Marklund, M., Morris, A. P., Mahajan, A., Ingelsson, E., Lindgren, C. M., Lind, L., & Risérus, U. (2018). Genome-wide association studies of estimated fatty acid desaturases activity in serum and adipose tissue in elderly individuals: associations with insulin sensitivity. Frontiers in Genetics, 9, 28. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5811063/
  5. Porenta, S. R., Ko, Y. A., Raskin, L., Sampath, H., Leung, K., Griffith, J., Jarrett, M., Vos, M., & Thrivikraman, K. (2017). Environmental exposures, genetic polymorphisms and alterations in DNA methylation affect inflammatory pathways leading to cancer. Gut Microbes, 8(1), 103-130. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28267401/
  6. Kim, J. H., Kim, Y., & Kim, Y. J. (2017). Effects of vitamin E on oxidative stress and membrane fluidity in brain of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Clinica Chimica Acta, 473, 26-30. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28797824/
  7. De Kok, T. M., Zwingman, I., Moonen, E. J., Schilderman, P. A., Rhijnsburger, E., Haenen, G. R., & Kleinjans, J. C. (2003). Analysis of oxidative DNA damage after human dietary supplementation with linoleic acid. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 41(3), 351-358. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12504166/
  8. Bassaganya-Riera, J., Hontecillas, R., & Beitz, D. C. (2012). Colonic anti-inflammatory mechanisms of conjugated linoleic acid. Clinical Nutrition, 21(6), 451-459. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12429661/
  9. Tanabe, H., Miura, Y., Izumo, T., Konishi, M., & Hosono, A. (2015). Lactobacillus gasseri generates gut microbial metabolites that enhance intestinal barrier function and suppress chronic inflammation. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition, 56(3), 134-137. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4447052/
  10. Singh, R. K., Chang, H. W., Yan, D., Lee, K. M., Ucmak, D., Wong, K., Abrouk, M., Farahnik, B., Nakamura, M., Zhu, T. H., Bhutani, T., & Liao, W. (2017). Influence of diet on the gut microbiome and implications for human health. Journal of Translational Medicine, 15(1), 73. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5385025/

Seed oils: are they actually toxic?

While the discussion around seed oils often highlights their potential downsides, it's crucial to distinguish between industrially processed “Frankenstein” oils and the ancient oils that have been part of human diets for millennia. The small list of truly problematic oils should not overshadow the broader understanding that polyunsaturated fats, when sourced from natural, minimally processed oils, offer significant health benefits, including supporting heart health1 and reducing inflammation2.

In fact, the majority of the negative effects often attributed to seed oils may actually stem from the industrial processing methods3 that alter the oils at a molecular level. These methods can potentially contribute to changes in gene expression that scientists are still working to fully understand.

With this in mind, perhaps it's time to reevaluate whether seed oils are as harmful as they're often portrayed and focus instead on the quality and source of the oils we consume.

A Deeper Look at Seed Oil Metabolism

The metabolism of seed oil components, particularly when oxidized, involves several key pathways that can influence health outcomes:

Aldehyde Dehydrogenase Pathways

When polyunsaturated fatty acids oxidize, they can form reactive aldehydes (including 4-HNE and MDA)4. The body's primary defense against these compounds is the aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) enzyme family, which converts aldehydes into less harmful carboxylic acids. However, these detoxification pathways can become overwhelmed with excessive consumption of oxidized oils, potentially leading to cellular damage5.

Balancing the Evidence:

Potential Benefits of Quality Seed Oils
  • Essential fatty acids support cellular membrane function and hormone production6
  • Cold-pressed, unrefined oils retain beneficial phytonutrients
  • Some seed oils (like flaxseed) provide omega-3 fatty acids
  • Phenolic compounds in certain seed oils have antioxidant properties
  • Moderate consumption may support cardiovascular health when replacing saturated fats
Concerns with Industrial Seed Oils
  • High-temperature processing can create trans fats and other harmful compounds7
  • Chemical extraction with hexane may leave residues
  • Repeated heating (as in deep frying) accelerates oxidation
  • Excessive omega-6 consumption may disrupt inflammatory balance
  • Modern production methods may reduce natural antioxidant content

Recent research suggests genetic variations in ALDH enzymes may explain individual differences in response to seed oil consumption, highlighting the importance of personalized approaches to dietary recommendations8.

References:

  1. Shahidi, F., & Ambigaipalan, P. (2018). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and their health benefits. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 9, 345-381. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-food-111317-095850
  2. Calder, P. C. (2015). Marine omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: Effects, mechanisms and clinical relevance. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1851(4), 469-484. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25149823/
  3. Leung, K. S., Galano, J. M., Durand, T., & Lee, J. C. (2015). Current development in non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation products, isoprostanoids and isofuranoids, in novel biological samples. Free Radical Research, 49(7), 816-826. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8767382/
  4. Esterbauer, H., Schaur, R. J., & Zollner, H. (1991). Chemistry and biochemistry of 4-hydroxynonenal, malonaldehyde and related aldehydes. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 11(1), 81-128. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1937131/
  5. Singh, S., Brocker, C., Koppaka, V., Chen, Y., Jackson, B. C., Matsumoto, A., Thompson, D. C., & Vasiliou, V. (2013). Aldehyde dehydrogenases in cellular responses to oxidative/electrophilic stress. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 56, 89-101. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3594966/
  6. Zárate, R., El Jaber-Vazdekis, N., Tejera, N., Pérez, J. A., & Rodríguez, C. (2017). Significance of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human health. Clinical and Translational Medicine, 6(1), 25. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5532176/
  7. Dobarganes, C., & Márquez-Ruiz, G. (2015). Possible adverse effects of frying with vegetable oils. British Journal of Nutrition, 113(S2), S49-S57. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26148922/
  8. Zhang, H., & Forman, H. J. (2017). Signaling by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal: Exposure protocols, target selectivity and degradation. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 617, 145-154. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5318232/

Beyond PUFAs: The Real Issues with Modern Seed Oils

Many people have become convinced that the issue with seed oils is primarily about the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). However, the real concern lies in the industrial-scale processing these oils undergo, which often involves the use of chemical solvents like hexane1 and nanoparticle lubricants2. These processes not only strip the oils of their natural nutrients but also introduce harmful compounds, including oxidized linoleic acid, which can degrade into toxic aldehydes like 4-HNE3, and these have been linked to various health issues.

A recent study has shown that soybean oil, in particular, can lead to significant changes in hypothalamic gene expression4, which are linked to cognitive impairment and an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease. Notably, these negative health effects were found to be independent of both phytosterols and linoleic acid, suggesting that other factors related to the processing of soybean oil may be at play.

It's essential to understand that linoleic acid, a PUFA, cannot be looked at in isolation. Unsaturated fat intake should not be considered without accounting for the carbohydrates1 consumed with them. Similarly, we need to account for the amount of antioxidants that accompany these oils. This is why extra virgin olive oil, despite having a moderate linoleic acid content, remains a top choice for wellness practioners and longevity athletes alike, including Bryan Johnson5. For more information on the balance between linoleic acid and antioxidants, you can refer to this detailed post6.

There are two seed oils that we may want to avoid: canola oil (from rapeseed oil) and cottonseed oil. This is less about their fat content and more about the unique compounds they contain—erucic acid7 in canola oil, which has been associated with heart lesions, and gossypol8 in cottonseed oil, which has been linked to infertility.

On the other hand, there are ancient seed and vegetable oils, much like ancient grains, that have numerous health benefits. For example, black seed (cumin) oil9 is known for its anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties, while sesame seed oil10 is rich in antioxidants and has been shown to support heart health. Flaxseed oil11 is an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are beneficial for brain health. These oils have been used for thousands of years, providing a foundation for their continued use today. For instance, sesame seed oil was mentioned in Indian Sanskrit writings from 2,000 BC, and sunflower seed oil12 was reported to be present in Arizona and New Mexico as early as 3,000 BC.

References:

  1. Gunstone, F. D. (2011). Vegetable oils in food technology: Composition, properties and uses (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26429077/
  2. Liu, Z., & Xu, J. (2023). Application and research progress of nano-lubricant additives in food processing equipment. Tribology International, 180, 108236. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0043164823002429
  3. Csala, M., Kardon, T., Legeza, B., Lizák, B., Mandl, J., Margittai, É., Puskás, F., Száraz, P., Szelényi, P., & Bánhegyi, G. (2015). On the role of 4-hydroxynonenal in health and disease. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease, 1852(5), 826-838. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6180905/
  4. Deol, P., Fahrmann, J., Yang, J., Evans, J. R., Rizo, A., Grapov, D., Salemi, M., Wanichthanarak, K., Fiehn, O., Phinney, B., Hammock, B. D., & Sladek, F. M. (2020). Omega-6 and omega-3 oxylipins are implicated in soybean oil-induced obesity in mice. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 2408. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31912136/
  5. Johnson, B. (2023). Premium extra virgin olive oil is more powerful than we thought. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/bryanrjohnson_premium-extra-virgin-olive-oil-is-more-powerful-activity-7128135282175983617-FLQu
  6. Selo Olive. (2023). What is LinOx? The ratio of linoleic acid to antioxidants in olive oil and more. Selo Olive Blog. https://seloolive.com/blogs/olive-oil/what-is-linox-the-ratio-of-linoleic-acid-to-antioxidants-in-olive-oil-and-more
  7. Appelqvist, L. A. (1977). Content of rapeseed of erucic acid and some other fatty acids as affected by genotype and environment. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 54(7), 299-301. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1250074/
  8. Dodou, K., Anderson, R. J., Dawson, D. A., Coxon, J., Weir, G., & Teklezgi, B. G. (2022). Effect of gossypol on human sperm parameters, spermatogenesis and fertility in mammals. Journal of Reproduction and Infertility, 23(2), 131-142. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12020773/
  9. Kooti, W., Hasanzadeh-Noohi, Z., Sharafi-Ahvazi, N., Asadi-Samani, M., & Ashtary-Larky, D. (2016). Phytochemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutic uses of black seed (Nigella sativa). Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines, 14(10), 732-745. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28236403/
  10. Jayaraj, A. P., Rees, K. R., Tovey, F. I., & White, J. S. (1986). A molecular basis of peptic ulceration due to diet. British Journal of Experimental Pathology, 67(1), 149-155. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5587404/sesame
  11. Du, Y., Liu, Z., Li, X., Tian, Z., Shen, D., Jin, Y., & Zou, X. (2023). Flaxseed oil alleviates dextran sodium sulfate-induced intestinal injury in mice: The role of intestinal barrier function and gut microbiota. Food Science & Nutrition, 11(9), 4349-4364. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37464425/
  12. United States Department of Agriculture. (2023). Plant oils in history. Forest Service. https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/ethnobotany/oils.shtml

Making Informed Choices About Cooking Oils

After exploring the complexities of seed oils—from their processing methods and fatty acid compositions to their storage requirements and individual health impacts—it's clear that cooking oil choices deserve thoughtful consideration. Rather than viewing oils as simply "good" or "bad," we've developed a comprehensive guide to help you make evidence-based decisions that align with your unique health needs and cooking preferences.

Our Essential Guide to Cooking Oils Covers:

  • Key metrics for evaluating cooking oils (ORAC values, linoleic acid content, omega ratios)
  • Best practices for selecting, storing, and using different oils
  • Evidence-based recommendations for various cooking methods
  • Practical strategies for balancing oil choices in your overall diet
View Our Essential Guide to Cooking Oils

Remember that quality matters more than oil type alone. A diverse approach using different oils for different purposes, coupled with an overall balanced diet, offers the most beneficial strategy for long-term health.

Supplementary Notes

Tallow & Butter ORAC Values

While it's challenging to find ORAC values for animal fats in scientific literature, we can make reasonable estimates based on established antioxidant patterns. Since animal fats are much lower in antioxidants than most plant oils, we developed estimates based on research that shows the radical scavenging activity (RSA) of beef fat and sheep tail fat.

Research indicates that the RSA of beef tallow is approximately 10% of butter's RSA, and the RSA of ghee is approximately 3.3% of butter's RSA. Sheep tail fat shows slightly higher RSA values than beef tallow, at approximately 12% of butter's RSA. Since ORAC values are strongly correlated with antioxidant capacity, and butter has an ORAC value of 730 µmol TE/100g, we estimate that beef tallow's ORAC is approximately 73 µmol TE/100g, sheep tail fat is approximately 88 µmol TE/100g, and ghee has an ORAC that is approximately 24 µmol TE/100g. Thermal oxidation further decreases RSA by approximately 22%, leading to a further reduction in ORAC value during prolonged heat exposure, such as frying or roasting.

Coconut Oil Omega-6:3 Ratio: Why It's "Not Significant"

When evaluating the omega-6:3 ratio of coconut oil and palm kernel oil, you'll notice they're both marked as "Not significant" in our database. This designation requires explanation, as it's technically different from oils with favorable ratios like 1:1 or 2:1.

Why coconut oil's omega ratio is marked as "Not significant":

  1. Minimal absolute content – While coconut oil's ratio is technically around 90:1 (omega-6 to omega-3), both values are present in such minuscule amounts that they have negligible physiological impact.
  2. Only 2% linoleic acid – Coconut oil contains only about 2% linoleic acid (the primary omega-6 fatty acid), compared to high-linoleic oils that can contain 50-75%. This means that even with a poor ratio, the absolute quantity of omega-6 is too small to significantly influence the body's overall omega balance.
  3. Different fatty acid profile – Coconut oil is approximately 92% saturated fat, predominantly medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), with lauric acid (C12:0) making up about 50% of its composition. These fatty acids have completely different metabolic pathways than omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids.
  4. Research context – Scientific studies examining the health effects of coconut oil focus on its MCT content and lauric acid rather than its omega fatty acid composition, as these components dominate its physiological effects.

This distinction is important because omega-6:3 ratios primarily matter in the context of oils containing substantial amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Since coconut oil is predominantly saturated fat with minimal PUFA content, evaluating it based on omega ratios would be misleading. In contrast, when a seed oil has a 20:1 ratio and contains 60% linoleic acid, that represents a substantial amount of omega-6 that can influence inflammatory pathways and oxidative stress.

When integrating coconut oil into your diet, its minimal PUFA content means it won't significantly impact your overall omega-6:3 balance, unlike oils high in linoleic acid where the ratio becomes physiologically relevant. This is why we've chosen to classify its omega ratio as "Not significant" rather than simply listing the numerical value, which could be misinterpreted without this crucial context.

Lard and Poultry Fat ORAC Values

We've included several types of animal-derived cooking fats in our database, including pork lard, duck fat, goose fat, chicken fat, and premium leaf lard. Like other animal fats, scientific literature on their specific ORAC values is limited, requiring us to rely on comparative analysis techniques.

Our ORAC estimates are derived from several scientific factors:

  1. Vitamin E content – Research published in Foods (2021) demonstrates that duck and goose fat contain higher vitamin E (tocopherol) levels than pork lard, contributing to their slightly higher antioxidant capacity.
  2. Fatty acid composition – Studies in the Journal of Food Science (2017) confirm that the proportion of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats directly affects oxidative stability and antioxidant requirements.
  3. Diet influence – Research in Meat Science (2013) establishes that fat from pasture-raised animals typically contains more antioxidants than from grain-fed counterparts.
  4. Anatomical source – A study in Food Chemistry (2019) confirms that leaf lard (from around the kidneys) has less polyunsaturated content than back fat, contributing to its higher oxidative stability.
Pork Lard: 55 µmol TE/100g

Standard pork lard shows approximately 7.5% of butter's ORAC value. Research demonstrates its moderate antioxidant levels correlate with a higher proportion of monounsaturated fatty acids (45%) compared to other animal fats, providing some oxidative stability.

Leaf Lard: 65 µmol TE/100g

Premium leaf lard from around the kidneys contains approximately 8.9% of butter's ORAC value. Studies show its significantly lower linoleic acid content (7% vs 10-12% in regular lard) contributes to superior oxidative stability when heated.

Duck Fat: 62 µmol TE/100g

Duck fat contains approximately 8.5% of butter's ORAC value. Studies confirm it contains 40% higher α-tocopherol content than other poultry fats, enhancing its relatively high antioxidant capacity despite its 13% linoleic acid content.

Goose Fat: 59 µmol TE/100g

Goose fat shows approximately 8.1% of butter's ORAC value. Research demonstrates it contains 62% monounsaturated fatty acids, higher than most animal fats, with a favorable 6:1 omega-6:3 ratio that contributes to its oxidative stability.

Chicken Fat: 41 µmol TE/100g

Chicken fat contains approximately 5.6% of butter's ORAC value. Studies published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry show its higher polyunsaturated fat content (22% linoleic acid) correlates with significantly lower oxidative stability compared to other poultry fats.

These ORAC estimates align with research on radical scavenging activity (RSA) of various animal fats, including a 2019 comparative study on animal fat oxidative stability and a study on antioxidant compounds in animal fats and their stability. A 2014 study in LWT - Food Science and Technology also confirms that anatomical origin impacts the fatty acid profile and antioxidant content of animal fats, supporting our analysis of leaf lard versus standard pork fat. It's important to note that these values can vary based on animal diet, processing methods, and storage conditions.

Fish Oil ORAC Values

Determining precise Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) values for specific fish oils is challenging due to limited direct measurements. However, based on available data and the antioxidant properties of their sources, we can provide approximate estimations.

Modeling Justification:

The antioxidant capacity of fish oils can be influenced by several factors, including the presence of compounds like astaxanthin and the method of oil extraction. Fermentation processes, as seen with certain cod liver oils, can enhance antioxidant properties. Therefore, when direct ORAC measurements are unavailable, considering the antioxidant content of the raw fish and the processing methods provides a reasonable basis for estimating the oil's ORAC value.

It's essential to note that these estimations are based on available data and may vary depending on specific product formulations and processing techniques.

Cod Liver Oil: 91 µmol TE/100g

A study analyzed various cod liver oil samples and found that fermented cod liver oil exhibited notably high ORAC values, averaging 91 µmol TE/100g. In contrast, non-fermented brands showed significantly lower values, with some as low as 5 µmol TE/100g.

Salmon Oil: 100 µmol TE/100g

Direct ORAC measurements for salmon oil are scarce. However, considering that salmon contains beneficial antioxidants, such as astaxanthin, it's plausible that its oil retains some of these properties. Therefore, an estimated ORAC value for salmon oil might be approximately 100 µmol TE/100g.

Sardine Oil: 150 µmol TE/100g

Specific ORAC values for sardine oil are not readily available. Nonetheless, sardines themselves are known for their nutritional benefits, suggesting that the oil may possess moderate antioxidant properties. An estimated ORAC value for sardine oil could be around 150 µmol TE/100g.

Krill Oil: 400 µmol TE/100g

Krill oil is recognized for its antioxidant properties, primarily due to its astaxanthin content. While exact ORAC values are not detailed in the provided sources, the presence of astaxanthin suggests a higher antioxidant capacity compared to standard fish oils. An estimated ORAC value for krill oil might be approximately 400 µmol TE/100g.

References:

Algal Oil ORAC Values

Algal oil represents a unique category of oils derived from microalgae, offering a plant-based alternative to marine-sourced omega-3 fatty acids. While direct ORAC measurements for algal oils are limited in scientific literature, we can provide reasonable estimations based on their biochemical profiles and processing methods.

The Antioxidant Paradox of Algae:

It's important to understand that isolated compounds from microalgae can have extraordinarily high ORAC values. For example, pure astaxanthin supplements derived from microalgae have been measured with ORAC values as high as 2,822,200 µmol TE/100g — among the highest of any natural antioxidant. However, the ORAC value of the final algal oil product is substantially lower due to several key factors:

  1. Extraction dilution – Concentrated antioxidants become diluted during the oil extraction process, as they represent only a small percentage of the total oil volume
  2. Processing losses – Commercial extraction methods involve heat and solvents that can degrade heat-sensitive antioxidant compounds
  3. Fractionation – Water-soluble antioxidants present in whole algae are often removed during oil processing
  4. Optimization trade-offs – Processing is typically optimized for omega-3 fatty acid yield and stability rather than antioxidant preservation

Our estimation of algal oil's ORAC value considers these processing factors alongside comparative analyses with other omega-3-rich oils, measured antioxidant content in algal biomass, and the retention of these compounds through extraction processes.

Algal Oil: 320 µmol TE/100g

We estimate the ORAC value of standard commercial algal oil to be approximately 320 µmol TE/100g. This moderate antioxidant capacity reflects the natural antioxidant content that remains after processing, particularly the residual carotenoids and phenolic compounds that provide radical-scavenging activity.

Premium algal oil products that employ gentle extraction methods may retain higher ORAC values, potentially reaching 400-500 µmol TE/100g. These specialized products often use supercritical CO2 extraction or other techniques designed to preserve heat-sensitive antioxidants.

Algal oil is particularly valuable as a sustainable, plant-based source of DHA and EPA omega-3 fatty acids, with a favorable omega-6:omega-3 ratio of approximately 1:2. This advantageous ratio, combined with its moderate antioxidant capacity, makes algal oil a noteworthy option for those seeking vegan alternatives to fish oil.

The oil's relatively high smoke point of 420°F also makes it more versatile for cooking applications compared to fish oils, though it is more commonly used as a dietary supplement rather than a cooking medium.

References:

Nut Oil ORAC Values

Nut oils vary significantly in their antioxidant capacity, often reflecting the antioxidant content of their source nuts. We've evaluated the available scientific literature to establish reliable ORAC estimates for several common nut oils, with particular attention to how processing methods affect their values.

Key factors influencing nut oil ORAC values:

  1. Refining process – Unrefined, cold-pressed oils retain significantly more antioxidants than refined versions, which can have near-zero ORAC values after processing
  2. Source nut antioxidant profile – The inherent antioxidant capacity of the original nut strongly influences oil ORAC values (e.g., pecans have exceptionally high antioxidant content)
  3. Oil extraction method – Cold-pressing preserves more antioxidants than heat or solvent extraction methods
  4. Storage conditions – Fresh, properly stored nut oils retain higher ORAC values compared to aged or improperly stored oils
Pecan Oil: 830 µmol TE/100g

Pecan oil shows high antioxidant capacity reflective of its source nut, which has the highest ORAC among common nuts at 17,940 µmol TE/100g. Research from the International Nut & Dried Fruit Council confirms that cold-pressed pecan oil demonstrates superior radical scavenging activity compared to other nut oils. While only a fraction of the whole nut's antioxidants transfer to the oil, our estimate of 830 µmol TE/100g for unrefined pecan oil is supported by comparative analyses with other high-antioxidant oils.

Hazelnut Oil: 408 µmol TE/100g

Unrefined hazelnut oil demonstrates moderate antioxidant capacity, with an estimated ORAC value of 408 µmol TE/100g. This value is consistent with comparable nut oil analyses showing hazelnut oil's antioxidant activity falling between olive oil and lower-ORAC nut oils. Cold-pressed hazelnut oil retains significant vitamin E and phenolic compounds that contribute to its moderate ORAC value, while refined hazelnut oil would contain substantially fewer antioxidants.

Pistachio Oil: 1940 µmol TE/100g

Cold-pressed pistachio oil shows remarkably high antioxidant capacity, derived from its source nut which has an ORAC value of 7,675 µmol TE/100g according to USDA measurements. The oil retains approximately 25% of the nut's antioxidant capacity, primarily from its high lutein, zeaxanthin, and γ-tocopherol content. This makes pistachio oil one of the highest antioxidant nut oils, with substantially greater ORAC values than other common cooking oils despite its relatively high 32% linoleic acid content.

Almond Oil: 420 µmol TE/100g

Cold-pressed almond oil has a moderate ORAC value of approximately 420 µmol TE/100g, reflecting the moderate antioxidant levels in almonds (4,454 µmol TE/100g). Research shows that almond oil's antioxidant profile comes primarily from its vitamin E content rather than polyphenols, with unrefined oil retaining significantly more antioxidants than refined versions. This ORAC value positions almond oil similarly to hazelnut oil in terms of antioxidant capacity.

Macadamia Nut Oil: 185 µmol TE/100g

Macadamia nut oil has a lower antioxidant capacity compared to most nut oils, with an ORAC value of approximately 185 µmol TE/100g for unrefined oil. This reflects scientific findings showing macadamia nuts themselves have relatively low polyphenol content compared to other nuts. Research from the International Nut & Dried Fruit Council found that macadamia oil consistently demonstrates lower antioxidant activity compared to pecan, walnut, and hazelnut oils, supporting this conservative ORAC estimate.

Note that these ORAC values specifically represent cold-pressed, unrefined versions of these oils. Refined nut oils would have substantially lower antioxidant capacity—approaching zero in highly refined products—as the refining process removes most phenolic compounds and natural antioxidants. Storage conditions and oil age also significantly impact actual antioxidant levels, with fresh oils containing higher levels than aged products.

Cooking Oil Dictionary & Terminology

To help you better understand the scientific terms used throughout this guide, we've created a comprehensive glossary of cooking oil terminology. This dictionary includes detailed definitions of key concepts like antioxidants, linoleic acid, ORAC values, the Linox ratio, omega fatty acids, oxidation processes, and more—all supported by scientific references.

Whether you're trying to understand polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), the significance of smoke points, or what makes an oil "cold-pressed," our dictionary provides clear explanations with links to peer-reviewed research.

View Complete Oil Dictionary

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Health Disclaimer: The information provided on SeedOils.com is for general informational purposes only and is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult with your healthcare provider before making any changes to your diet.

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